manuel cohen

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  • General view of main gate of Ichan-Kala, Ota Darvoza (Father Gate), with the Muhammad Rakhim-khan II Madrasah, 1871, in the background, Khiva, Uzbekistan, pictured on July 6, 2010, at sunset. Khiva's old city, Ichan Kala, is surrounded by 2.2 kilometres of crenellated and bastioned city walls. The main gate today is the restored western Ota Darvoza (Father Gate). Khiva, ancient and remote, is the most intact Silk Road city. Ichan Kala, its old town, was the first site in Uzbekistan to become a World Heritage Site(1991). Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LC_UZBEKISTAN_0710_MC212.JPG
  • Detail of a turret of the main gate of Ichan-Kala, Ota Darvoza (Father Gate), on the left  and walls of the old city on the right distance, Khiva, Uzbekistan, pictured on July 7, 2010, at dawn. Khiva's old city, Ichan Kala, is surrounded by 2.2 kilometres of crenellated and bastioned city walls. Some sections may be 5th century, but the strongest sections were built 1686-88 by Arang Khan. The main gate today is the restored western Ota Darvoza (Father Gate). Khiva, ancient and remote, is the most intact Silk Road city. Ichan Kala, its old town, was the first site in Uzbekistan to become a World Heritage Site(1991). Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LC_UZBEKISTAN_0710_MC152.jpg
  • General view of Matniyaz Divan-begi madrasah (right) 1871, Kalta Minor (centre) 1855, and Ota Darvoza (Father Gate) (left), Khiva, Uzbekistan, pictured on July 5, 2010, at sunset. Khiva's old city, Ichan Kala, is surrounded by 2.2 kilometres of crenellated and bastioned city walls. Some sections may be 5th century, but the strongest sections were built 1686-88 by Arang Khan. The main gate today is the restored western Ota Darvoza (Father Gate). Commissioned by Muhammad Niyaz the rectangular, Madrasah has a traditional main facade, its high portal, decorated with majolica, having a central pentahedral niche and corner guldastas which are geometrically patterned in blue, white and green, with green brick domes. The Kalta Minor or Short Minaret was commissioned by Mohammed Amin Khan in 1852 to stand 70 m. high, but was abandoned when he died in 1855, and remains only 26 m. high. Khiva, ancient and remote, is the most intact Silk Road city. Ichan Kala, its old town, was the first site in Uzbekistan to become a World Heritage Site(1991). Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LC_UZBEKISTAN_0710_MC154.jpg
  • Portrait of a young boy in front of the  the Ota Darvoza gate, Khiva, Uzbekistan, pictured on July 7, 2010, in the late afternoon light of a summer day. Khiva's old city, Ichan Kala, is surrounded by 2.2 kilometres of crenellated and bastioned city walls. Some sections may be 5th century, but the strongest sections were built 1686-88 by Arang Khan. The main gate today is the restored western Ota Darvoza (Father Gate). Khiva, ancient and remote, is the most intact Silk Road city. Ichan Kala, its old town, was the first site in Uzbekistan to become a World Heritage Site(1991). Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LC_UZBEKISTAN_0710_MC241.jpg
  • General view of  Ota Darvoza (Father Gate), main gate to Ichan Kala,  Khiva, Uzbekistan, pictured on July 6, 2010, at sunset. Khiva's old city, Ichan Kala, is surrounded by 2.2 kilometres of crenellated and bastioned city walls. Some sections may be 5th century, but the strongest sections were built 1686-88 by Arang Khan. The main gate today is the restored western Ota Darvoza (Father Gate). Khiva, ancient and remote, is the most intact Silk Road city. Ichan Kala, its old town, was the first site in Uzbekistan to become a World Heritage Site(1991). Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LC_UZBEKISTAN_0710_MC214.jpg
  • Low angle view of a bastion on the walls of the old city, Khiva, Uzbekistan, pictured on July 6, 2010, at sunrise. Khiva's old city, Ichan Kala, is surrounded by 2.2 kilometres of crenellated and bastioned city walls. Some sections may be 5th century, but the strongest sections were built 1686-88 by Arang Khan. Khiva, ancient and remote, is the most intact Silk Road city. Ichan Kala, its old town, was the first site in Uzbekistan to become a World Heritage Site(1991). Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LC_UZBEKISTAN_0710_MC153.jpg
  • General view of main gate of Ichan-Kala, Ota Darvoza (Father Gate), Khiva, Uzbekistan, pictured on July 5, 2010, in the afternoon. The Kalta Minor is visible behind the gate. Khiva's old city, Ichan Kala, is surrounded by 2.2 kilometres of crenellated and bastioned city walls. Some sections may be 5th century, but the strongest sections were built 1686-88 by Arang Khan. The main gate today is the restored western Ota Darvoza (Father Gate). Khiva, ancient and remote, is the most intact Silk Road city. Ichan Kala, its old town, was the first site in Uzbekistan to become a World Heritage Site(1991). Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LC_UZBEKISTAN_0710_MC141.jpg
  • Montebello castle, built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90, in Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle is linked to the town by crenellated defensive walls. The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    DRN_LC18_Bellinzona_MC045.jpg
  • Montebello castle, built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90, in Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle is linked to the town by crenellated defensive walls. The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC18_Bellinzona_MC008.jpg
  • The Castillo de La Calahorra, or Calahorra Castle, built 1509-12 near the village of La Calahorra in the Sierra Nevada mountains, Andalusia, Southern Spain. Built on the site of a former Moorish fort, the castle was built in Italian Renaissance style, with 4 corner towers and a crenellated outer wall. It was awarded to Cardinal Mendoza by the Catholic monarchs. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC14_GRANADA_MC230.jpg
  • The Castillo de La Calahorra, or Calahorra Castle, built 1509-12 near the village of La Calahorra in the Sierra Nevada mountains, Andalusia, Southern Spain. Built on the site of a former Moorish fort, the castle was built in Italian Renaissance style, with 4 corner towers and a crenellated outer wall. It was awarded to Cardinal Mendoza by the Catholic monarchs. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC14_GRANADA_MC223.jpg
  • Main facade with crenellated barbican or fortified gateway and Homage Tower, at the Palais des Rois de Majorque, or Palace of the Kings of Majorca, built 1276-1309 by Ramon Pau, Pons Descoll and Bernat Quer, for King James II of Majorca, in Puig del Rey, Perpignan, Pyrenees-Orientales, Catalogne du Nord, France. The fortified palace is in Late Romanesque and Gothic style and is built around 3 courtyards. It was fortified by Louis XI and renovated by Charles V and Vauban in the 15th and 17th centuries. In the 13th century, Perpignan was the capital of the Kingdom of Majorca. The palace is listed as a historic monument. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC20_FRANCE_MC_1217.jpg
  • Montebello castle, built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90, in Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle is linked to the town by crenellated defensive walls. The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC18_Bellinzona_MC047.jpg
  • The Castillo de La Calahorra, or Calahorra Castle, built 1509-12 near the village of La Calahorra in the Sierra Nevada mountains, Andalusia, Southern Spain. Built on the site of a former Moorish fort, the castle was built in Italian Renaissance style, with 4 corner towers and a crenellated outer wall. It was awarded to Cardinal Mendoza by the Catholic monarchs. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC14_GRANADA_MC227.jpg
  • Montebello castle at night, built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90, in Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle is linked to the town by crenellated defensive walls. The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC18_Bellinzona_MC024.jpg
  • Main facade with crenellated barbican or fortified gateway and Homage Tower, at the Palais des Rois de Majorque, or Palace of the Kings of Majorca, built 1276-1309 by Ramon Pau, Pons Descoll and Bernat Quer, for King James II of Majorca, in Puig del Rey, Perpignan, Pyrenees-Orientales, Catalogne du Nord, France. The fortified palace is in Late Romanesque and Gothic style and is built around 3 courtyards. It was fortified by Louis XI and renovated by Charles V and Vauban in the 15th and 17th centuries. In the 13th century, Perpignan was the capital of the Kingdom of Majorca. The palace is listed as a historic monument. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC20_FRANCE_MC_1212.jpg
  • Main facade and Homage Tower, with moat and crenellated barbican or fortified gateway, at the Palais des Rois de Majorque, or Palace of the Kings of Majorca, built 1276-1309 by Ramon Pau, Pons Descoll and Bernat Quer, for King James II of Majorca, in Puig del Rey, Perpignan, Pyrenees-Orientales, Catalogne du Nord, France. The fortified palace is in Late Romanesque and Gothic style and is built around 3 courtyards. It was fortified by Louis XI and renovated by Charles V and Vauban in the 15th and 17th centuries. In the 13th century, Perpignan was the capital of the Kingdom of Majorca. The palace is listed as a historic monument. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC20_FRANCE_MC_1169.jpg
  • Silhouette of the Castillo de La Calahorra, or Calahorra Castle, built 1509-12 near the village of La Calahorra in the Sierra Nevada mountains, Andalusia, Southern Spain. Built on the site of a former Moorish fort, the castle was built in Italian Renaissance style, with 4 corner towers and a crenellated outer wall. It was awarded to Cardinal Mendoza by the Catholic monarchs. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC14_GRANADA_MC232.jpg
  • Crenellated tower of the first enclosure, and gardens of the Alcazaba, a 10th century fortified enclosure and royal residence in Almeria, Andalusia, Southern Spain. The Alcazaba was begun in 955 by Rahman III and completed by Hayran, Taifa king of Almeria, in the 11th century. It was later added to by the Catholic monarchs. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC14_ALMERIA_MC153.jpg
  • Crenellated ramparts of the first enclosure, and behind, the towers and statue of the Sacred Heart of Jesus on the San Cristobal Hill or Monte Laham, in the Alcazaba, a 10th century fortified enclosure and royal residence in Almeria, Andalusia, Southern Spain. The Alcazaba itself was begun in 955 by Rahman III and completed by Hayran, Taifa king of Almeria, in the 11th century. It was later added to by the Catholic monarchs. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC14_ALMERIA_MC138.jpg
  • Crenellated ramparts and corner tower of the Sheikh Salman bin Ahmed Al-Fateh Fort, or Riffa Fort, built in the 17th century and rebuilt as the ruling Al Khalifa family home in 1812, at Riffa, Bahrain. The fort is square with 2 circular and 2 rectangular towers at its corners, and 3 courtyards. It was restored in the 20th century and is now a tourist attraction. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC19_BAHREIN_MC_134.JPG
  • Montebello castle, built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90, in Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle is linked to the town by crenellated defensive walls. The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    DRN_LC18_Bellinzona_MC036.jpg
  • Montebello castle, built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90, in Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle is linked to the town by crenellated defensive walls. The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    DRN_LC18_Bellinzona_MC035.jpg
  • Carter on a cart pulled by a horse in the courtyard, and behind, the crenellated curtain walls, Chapel Tower and the North Range or Logis Seigneurial, at the Chateau de Guedelon, a castle built since 1997 using only medieval materials and processes, photographed in 2017, in Treigny, Yonne, Burgundy, France. The Guedelon project was begun in 1997 by Michel Guyot, owner of the nearby Chateau de Saint-Fargeau, with architect Jacques Moulin. It is an educational and scientific project with the aim of understanding medieval building techniques and the chateau should be completed in the 2020s. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC17_FRANCE_MC_1288.jpg
  • Se Velha or Old Cathedral, a 12th century Romanesque church built by Master Robert of France in Coimbra, Portugal. The cathedral was commissioned by King Afonso Henriques after the Battle of Ourique in 1139. The Western facade has a crenellated roofline and an arched portal with Arabic and Pre-romanesque influences, and a similar window above. In the background is the University of Coimbra clock tower. The University of Coimbra was first founded in 1290 and moved to Coimbra in 1308 and to the royal palace in 1537. The historic buildings of Coimbra are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC16_PORTUGAL_MC_145.JPG
  • Low angle view of walls of the old city, Khiva, Uzbekistan, pictured on July 5, 2010, in the afternoon. Khiva's old city, Ichan Kala, is surrounded by 2.2 kilometres of crenellated and bastioned city walls. Some sections may be 5th century, but the strongest sections were built 1686-88 by Arang Khan. Khiva, ancient and remote, is the most intact Silk Road city. Ichan Kala, its old town, was the first site in Uzbekistan to become a World Heritage Site(1991). Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LC_UZBEKISTAN_0710_MC140.jpg
  • Main facade and Homage Tower, with moat and crenellated barbican or fortified gateway, at the Palais des Rois de Majorque, or Palace of the Kings of Majorca, built 1276-1309 by Ramon Pau, Pons Descoll and Bernat Quer, for King James II of Majorca, in Puig del Rey, Perpignan, Pyrenees-Orientales, Catalogne du Nord, France. The fortified palace is in Late Romanesque and Gothic style and is built around 3 courtyards. It was fortified by Louis XI and renovated by Charles V and Vauban in the 15th and 17th centuries. In the 13th century, Perpignan was the capital of the Kingdom of Majorca. The palace is listed as a historic monument. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC20_FRANCE_MC_1211.jpg
  • Rooftops of the medieval town and crenellated city walls over the hill, Albarracin, Teruel, Aragon, Spain. The city walls were begun in the 11th century and then completed in the 15th century. Albarracin was founded as a Moorish town in the 11th century and became an independent lordship until the 13th century. The town is listed as a national monument. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC19_SPAIN_MC194.jpg
  • Montebello castle, built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90, in Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle is linked to the town by crenellated defensive walls. The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    DRN_LC18_Bellinzona_MC042.jpg
  • Inside the Castillo de Bury Al-Hamma or Burgalimar Castle, an Arab fortress completed 968 AD by the Cordoban Umayyad Caliph Alhakam II, in Banos de la Encina, Jaen, Andalusia, Spain. The castle has 15 10m high square towers and crenellated walls made from tamped earth and mortar, with a high keep added later in the Christian era, and is listed as a national monument. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC17_SPAIN_MC109.jpg
  • The Castillo de La Calahorra, or Calahorra Castle, built 1509-12 near the village of La Calahorra in the Sierra Nevada mountains, Andalusia, Southern Spain. Built on the site of a former Moorish fort, the castle was built in Italian Renaissance style, with 4 corner towers and a crenellated outer wall. It was awarded to Cardinal Mendoza by the Catholic monarchs. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC14_GRANADA_MC250.jpg
  • The Castillo de La Calahorra, or Calahorra Castle, built 1509-12 near the village of La Calahorra in the Sierra Nevada mountains, Andalusia, Southern Spain. Built on the site of a former Moorish fort, the castle was built in Italian Renaissance style, with 4 corner towers and a crenellated outer wall. It was awarded to Cardinal Mendoza by the Catholic monarchs. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC14_GRANADA_MC224.jpg
  • Chapel Tower and scaffolding seen from the crenellated curtain wall at the Chateau de Guedelon, a castle built since 1997 using only medieval materials and processes, photographed in 2017, in Treigny, Yonne, Burgundy, France. The Guedelon project was begun in 1997 by Michel Guyot, owner of the nearby Chateau de Saint-Fargeau, with architect Jacques Moulin. It is an educational and scientific project with the aim of understanding medieval building techniques and the chateau should be completed in the 2020s. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC17_FRANCE_MC_1211.jpg
  • Memorial to muslim soldiers, inaugurated by French President Jacques Chirac in 2006 on the 90th anniversary of the Battle of Verdun, in memory of the 28,000 muslim soldiers who died at Verdun in World War One, at the Ossuaire de Douaumont or Douaumont Ossuary, at Douaumont, Verdun, Meuse, Lorraine, France. The monument is built in Moorish style, with a 25m long ambulatory with crenellated roofline and a central koubba or cupola. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC15_FRANCE_MC_1090.jpg
  • The Castillo de La Calahorra, or Calahorra Castle, built 1509-12 near the village of La Calahorra in the Sierra Nevada mountains, Andalusia, Southern Spain. Built on the site of a former Moorish fort, the castle was built in Italian Renaissance style, with 4 corner towers and a crenellated outer wall. It was awarded to Cardinal Mendoza by the Catholic monarchs. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC14_GRANADA_MC228.jpg
  • The Castillo de La Calahorra, or Calahorra Castle, built 1509-12 near the village of La Calahorra in the Sierra Nevada mountains, Andalusia, Southern Spain. Built on the site of a former Moorish fort, the castle was built in Italian Renaissance style, with 4 corner towers and a crenellated outer wall. It was awarded to Cardinal Mendoza by the Catholic monarchs. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC14_GRANADA_MC226.jpg
  • Low angle view of walls of the old city, Khiva, Uzbekistan, pictured on July 6, 2010, at sunrise. Khiva's old city, Ichan Kala, is surrounded by 2.2 kilometres of crenellated and bastioned city walls. Some sections may be 5th century, but the strongest sections were built 1686-88 by Arang Khan. Khiva, ancient and remote, is the most intact Silk Road city. Ichan Kala, its old town, was the first site in Uzbekistan to become a World Heritage Site(1991). Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LC_UZBEKISTAN_0710_MC161.jpg
  • Crenellated ramparts of the Sheikh Salman bin Ahmed Al-Fateh Fort, or Riffa Fort, built in the 17th century and rebuilt as the ruling Al Khalifa family home in 1812, at Riffa, Bahrain. The fort is square with 2 circular and 2 rectangular towers at its corners, and 3 courtyards. It was restored in the 20th century and is now a tourist attraction. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC19_BAHREIN_MC_128.jpg
  • Montebello castle, built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90, in Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle is linked to the town by crenellated defensive walls. The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    DRN_LC18_Bellinzona_MC044.jpg
  • Montebello castle at night, built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90, in Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle is linked to the town by crenellated defensive walls. The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC18_Bellinzona_MC025.jpg
  • Lifting gear or squirrel cage with single drum and behind, the crenellated curtain walls, in the courtyard of the Chateau de Guedelon, a castle built since 1997 using only medieval materials and processes, photographed in 2017, in Treigny, Yonne, Burgundy, France. The Guedelon project was begun in 1997 by Michel Guyot, owner of the nearby Chateau de Saint-Fargeau, with architect Jacques Moulin. It is an educational and scientific project with the aim of understanding medieval building techniques and the chateau should be completed in the 2020s. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC17_FRANCE_MC_1238.jpg
  • Lifting gear or squirrel cage with single drum and behind, the crenellated curtain walls, in the courtyard of the Chateau de Guedelon, a castle built since 1997 using only medieval materials and processes, photographed in 2017, in Treigny, Yonne, Burgundy, France. The Guedelon project was begun in 1997 by Michel Guyot, owner of the nearby Chateau de Saint-Fargeau, with architect Jacques Moulin. It is an educational and scientific project with the aim of understanding medieval building techniques and the chateau should be completed in the 2020s. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC17_FRANCE_MC_1232.jpg
  • Lifting gear or squirrel cage with single drum and behind, the crenellated curtain walls, in the courtyard of the Chateau de Guedelon, a castle built since 1997 using only medieval materials and processes, photographed in 2017, in Treigny, Yonne, Burgundy, France. The Guedelon project was begun in 1997 by Michel Guyot, owner of the nearby Chateau de Saint-Fargeau, with architect Jacques Moulin. It is an educational and scientific project with the aim of understanding medieval building techniques and the chateau should be completed in the 2020s. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC17_FRANCE_MC_1231.jpg
  • Memorial to muslim soldiers, inaugurated by French President Jacques Chirac in 2006 on the 90th anniversary of the Battle of Verdun, in memory of the 28,000 muslim soldiers who died at Verdun in World War One, at the Ossuaire de Douaumont or Douaumont Ossuary, at Douaumont, Verdun, Meuse, Lorraine, France. The monument is built in Moorish style, with a 25m long ambulatory with crenellated roofline and a central koubba or cupola. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC15_FRANCE_MC_1255.jpg
  • The Porte Chaussee or Causeway Tower, built 1380 in Gothic style, on the banks of the river Meuse, Verdun, Meuse, Lorraine, France. The tower formed part of the defensive ramparts of Verdun, with 2 circular towers with crenellated battlements. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC15_VERDUN_MC024.jpg
  • Montebello castle, built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90, in Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle is linked to the town by crenellated defensive walls. The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC18_Bellinzona_MC006.jpg
  • Montebello castle at night, built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90, in Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle is linked to the town by crenellated defensive walls. The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC18_Bellinzona_MC057.jpg
  • Montebello castle, built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90, in Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle is linked to the town by crenellated defensive walls. The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC18_Bellinzona_MC010.jpg
  • Chapel Tower and North Range or Logis Seigneurial, completed 2010, seen from the crenellated curtain wall at the Chateau de Guedelon, a castle built since 1997 using only medieval materials and processes, photographed in 2017, in Treigny, Yonne, Burgundy, France. The Guedelon project was begun in 1997 by Michel Guyot, owner of the nearby Chateau de Saint-Fargeau, with architect Jacques Moulin. It is an educational and scientific project with the aim of understanding medieval building techniques and the chateau should be completed in the 2020s. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC17_FRANCE_MC_1210.jpg
  • Corner tower of the Castillo de La Calahorra, or Calahorra Castle, built 1509-12 near the village of La Calahorra in the Sierra Nevada mountains, Andalusia, Southern Spain. Built on the site of a former Moorish fort, the castle was built in Italian Renaissance style, with 4 corner towers and a crenellated outer wall. It was awarded to Cardinal Mendoza by the Catholic monarchs. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC14_GRANADA_MC231.jpg
  • The Castillo de La Calahorra, or Calahorra Castle, built 1509-12 near the village of La Calahorra in the Sierra Nevada mountains, Andalusia, Southern Spain. Built on the site of a former Moorish fort, the castle was built in Italian Renaissance style, with 4 corner towers and a crenellated outer wall. It was awarded to Cardinal Mendoza by the Catholic monarchs. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC14_GRANADA_MC222.jpg
  • Crenellated ramparts of the Alhambra, and behind, the Generalife, summer palace and country estate and gardens of the Nasrid kings, built in the 14th century under Muhammad III, 1302–1309 and redecorated by Abu I-Walid Isma'il, 1313-1324, Alhambra Palace, Granada, Andalusia, Southern Spain. The Alhambra was begun in the 11th century as a castle, and in the 13th and 14th centuries served as the royal palace of the Nasrid sultans. The huge complex contains the Alcazaba, Nasrid palaces, gardens and Generalife. Granada was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC14_GRANADA_MC028.jpg
  • Castillo de Bury Al-Hamma or Burgalimar Castle, an Arab fortress completed 968 AD by the Cordoban Umayyad Caliph Alhakam II, in Banos de la Encina, Jaen, Andalusia, Spain. The castle has 15 10m high square towers and crenellated walls, with a high keep added later in the Christian era, and is listed as a national monument. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC17_SPAIN_MC110.jpg
  • Inside the Castillo de Bury Al-Hamma or Burgalimar Castle, an Arab fortress completed 968 AD by the Cordoban Umayyad Caliph Alhakam II, in Banos de la Encina, Jaen, Andalusia, Spain. The castle has 15 10m high square towers and crenellated walls made from tamped earth and mortar, with a high keep added later in the Christian era, and is listed as a national monument. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC17_SPAIN_MC108.jpg
  • Memorial to muslim soldiers, inaugurated by French President Jacques Chirac in 2006 on the 90th anniversary of the Battle of Verdun, in memory of the 28,000 muslim soldiers who died at Verdun in World War One, at the Ossuaire de Douaumont or Douaumont Ossuary, at Douaumont, Verdun, Meuse, Lorraine, France. The monument is built in Moorish style, with a 25m long ambulatory with crenellated roofline and a central koubba or cupola. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC15_FRANCE_MC_1256.jpg
  • Main facade and Homage Tower, with crenellated barbican or fortified gateway, at the Palais des Rois de Majorque, or Palace of the Kings of Majorca, built 1276-1309 by Ramon Pau, Pons Descoll and Bernat Quer, for King James II of Majorca, in Puig del Rey, Perpignan, Pyrenees-Orientales, Catalogne du Nord, France. The fortified palace is in Late Romanesque and Gothic style and is built around 3 courtyards. It was fortified by Louis XI and renovated by Charles V and Vauban in the 15th and 17th centuries. In the 13th century, Perpignan was the capital of the Kingdom of Majorca. The palace is listed as a historic monument. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC20_FRANCE_MC_1213.jpg
  • Montebello castle, built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90, in Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle is linked to the town by crenellated defensive walls. The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    DRN_LC18_Bellinzona_MC043.jpg
  • Inside the Castillo de Bury Al-Hamma or Burgalimar Castle, an Arab fortress completed 968 AD by the Cordoban Umayyad Caliph Alhakam II, in Banos de la Encina, Jaen, Andalusia, Spain. The castle has 15 10m high square towers and crenellated walls made from tamped earth and mortar, with a high keep added later in the Christian era, and is listed as a national monument. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC17_SPAIN_MC107.jpg
  • The Castillo de La Calahorra, or Calahorra Castle, built 1509-12 near the village of La Calahorra in the Sierra Nevada mountains, Andalusia, Southern Spain. Built on the site of a former Moorish fort, the castle was built in Italian Renaissance style, with 4 corner towers and a crenellated outer wall. It was awarded to Cardinal Mendoza by the Catholic monarchs. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • Crenellated ramparts of the first enclosure of the Alcazaba, a 10th century fortified enclosure and royal residence in Almeria, Andalusia, Southern Spain, with the port of Almeria on the left. The Alcazaba was begun in 955 by Rahman III and completed by Hayran, Taifa king of Almeria, in the 11th century. It was later added to by the Catholic monarchs. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • Monastery of El Parral, 15th century, founded by Henry IV of Spain, Segovia, Castile and Leon, Spain. The 4 cloisters are of mixed styles: Gothic, Mudejar and Plateresque, and the elegant crenellated tower was added later; on its unfinished doorway are carved the arms of the Pacheco family. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • Oblique view of the Universidad de Yucatan, 1618, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico, pictured on July 16, 2006, in the morning. The impressive white crenellated University building was originally a Jesuit boys' school. Merida is the state capital of Yucatan. Picture by Manuel Cohen.
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  • Montebello castle, built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90, in Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle is linked to the town by crenellated defensive walls. The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    LC18_Bellinzona_MC009.jpg
  • Montebello castle, built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90, in Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle is linked to the town by crenellated defensive walls. The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • Crenellated defensive walls linking Montebello castle with the town of Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. The castle was built early 14th century for the Rusconi family, with a keep of 1313, and expanded 1462-90. It is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Archaeological and Civic Museum, opened 1974. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • The Torre de la Guardia watchtower and entrance gate to the Alcazaba, a 10th century fortified enclosure and royal residence in Almeria, Andalusia, Southern Spain, with crenellated ramparts above. The Alcazaba was begun in 955 by Rahman III and completed by Hayran, Taifa king of Almeria, in the 11th century. It was later added to by the Catholic monarchs. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • Panoramic view of the crenellated bridge of the Castelvecchio crossing the Adige River and, on the left Castelvecchio, 1354-79, Verona, Italy. The castle, built with its bridge, for Cangrande II, stands on the probable site of a Roman fortress. The fortified bridge was intended as an emergency escape route for the Scala family towards the Tyrol. The castle, where Napoleon stayed, was damaged  during the Pasque Veronesi, Napoleonic Wars (1796-97). Castelvecchio was restored in 1923 and 1963-65. Picture by Manuel Cohen.
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  • Low angle view of the Wall of the old city, Khiva, Uzbekistan, pictured on July 7, 2010, at sunset. Khiva's old city, Ichan Kala, is surrounded by 2.2 kilometres of crenellated and bastioned city walls. Some sections may be 5th century, but the strongest sections were built 1686-88 by Arang Khan. Khiva, ancient and remote, is the most intact Silk Road city. Ichan Kala, its old town, was the first site in Uzbekistan to become a World Heritage Site(1991). Picture by Manuel Cohen.
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  • Main facade with crenellated barbican or fortified gateway and Homage Tower, at the Palais des Rois de Majorque, or Palace of the Kings of Majorca, built 1276-1309 by Ramon Pau, Pons Descoll and Bernat Quer, for King James II of Majorca, in Puig del Rey, Perpignan, Pyrenees-Orientales, Catalogne du Nord, France. The fortified palace is in Late Romanesque and Gothic style and is built around 3 courtyards. It was fortified by Louis XI and renovated by Charles V and Vauban in the 15th and 17th centuries. In the 13th century, Perpignan was the capital of the Kingdom of Majorca. The palace is listed as a historic monument. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • North Range or Logis Seigneurial, completed in 2010 (right), with lifting gear or squirrel cage with double drum, Corner Tower (left), crenellated curtain wall and Chapel Tower (centre), at the Chateau de Guedelon, a castle built since 1997 using only medieval materials and processes, photographed in 2017, in Treigny, Yonne, Burgundy, France. The Guedelon project was begun in 1997 by Michel Guyot, owner of the nearby Chateau de Saint-Fargeau, with architect Jacques Moulin. It is an educational and scientific project with the aim of understanding medieval building techniques and the chateau should be completed in the 2020s. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • Section of the crenellated city walls in the Sierra de Albarracin mountains overlooking the town of Albarracin, Teruel, Aragon, Spain. The city walls were begun in the 11th century and then completed in the 15th century. Albarracin was founded as a Moorish town in the 11th century and became an independent lordship until the 13th century. The town is listed as a national monument. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • Low angle view across the crenellated bridge over the Adige River, Castelvecchio, 1354-79, Verona, Italy, with shadows forming a geometric pattern on the pavement. The castle, built with its bridge, for Cangrande II,  stands on the probable site of a Roman fortress. The fortified bridge was intended as an emergency escape route for the Scala family towards the Tyrol. Castelvecchio was restored in 1923 and 1963-65. Picture by Manuel Cohen.
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  • Panorama From Hotel Mille et Une Nuits, Tangier, Morocco pictured on December 27, 2009. The elegant seafront hote, with crenellated walls, has a fine view over the Straits of Gibraltar. Tangier, the 'White City', gateway to North Africa, a port on the Straits of Gibraltar where the Meditaerranean meets the Atlantic is an ancient city where many cultures, Phoenicians, Berbers, Portuguese and Spaniards have all left their mark. With its medina, palace and position overlooking two seas the city is now being developed as a tourist attraction and modern port. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • Low angle view of Palazzo Vecchio, Piazza della Signoria, Florence, Tuscany, Italy, pictured on March 22, 2011, in the afternoon. The Palazzo Vecchio, begun in 1299, was designed by Arnolfo di Cambio (1245-1302), and was originally known as the Palazzo di Signoria, after the Signoria or ruling body of Florence. It is built in rusticated stonework topped with crenellations, with two rows of Gothic trefoil arched windows. It now houses both a museum and the office of the mayor of Florence. Florence, capital of Tuscany, is world famous for its Renaissance art and architecture. Its historical centre was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • Looking through crenellations on the terrace of the Torre de la Calahorra, a fortified city gate, built in the 12th century by the Almohads, across the Guadalquivir river at the Cathedral-Great Mosque of Cordoba, in Cordoba, Andalusia, Southern Spain. The first church built here by the Visigoths in the 7th century was split in half by the Moors, becoming half church, half mosque. In 784, the Great Mosque of Cordoba was built in its place, but in 1236 it was converted into a catholic church, with a Renaissance cathedral nave built in the 16th century. The historic centre of Cordoba is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • Low angle view from behind of statue of Perseus holding the Head of Medusa, 1554, by Benvenuto Cellini, and Palazzo Vecchio, Piazza de la Signoria, Florence, Tuscany, Italy, pictured on June 8, 2007, in the late afternoon. The statue was commissioned by Cosimo I de Medici and has recently been restored. The Palazzo Vecchio, begun in 1299, was designed by Arnolfo di Cambio (1245-1302). Florence, capital of Tuscany, is world famous for its Renaissance art and architecture. Its historical centre was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982. Picture by Manuel Cohen.
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  • General view of Porta San Niccolo (San Niccolo Gate), 1324, by Andrea Orcagna, Piazza Giuseppe Poggi, Florence, Tuscany, Italy, pictured from the River Arno on June 10, 2007, in the afternoon, surrounded by trees. The Gate of San Niccolo, part of the city walls, guarded the river in partnership with the Zecca Gate on the opposite Northern bank of the Arno. It is the only gate whose height was not reduced during the siege of Florence, 1529. Florence, capital of Tuscany, is world famous for its Renaissance art and architecture. Its historical centre was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    DITALY070529.jpg
  • Low angle view of Palazzo Spini Feroni, 1289, Geri Spini, Florence, Tuscany, Italy, pictured on June 10, 2007, in the afternoon. Over the centuries it changed hands several times, from the Spinis to the Guasconis and then to the Bagnano and Feroni families. In 1846 the palazzo was acquired by the City of Florence and from 1860 to 1870 when Florence was the capital of Italy, it was the seat of the City Council. In 1881 it was sold to the Cassa di Risparmio and came under private ownership when Salvatore Ferragamo purchased it in 1938 as the headquarters of the company and his own workshop. The building was restored in 2000 and now proudly shows its masterpieces of seventeenth and eighteenth century Fiorentine art. Florence, capital of Tuscany, is world famous for its Renaissance art and architecture. Its historical centre was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982. Picture by Manuel Cohen.
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  • Detail of sculpture of Lion, 1600, by Flaminio Vacca or Vacchi (1538-1605), with Palazzo Vecchio in the background, Florence, Italy, pictured on June 8, 2007 in the late afternoon. The lion was made to match a Roman sculpture which originally stood by the staircase at the Villa Medici. When the Villa was sold by the Grand Duke of Tuscany the lions were moved to the Piazza della Signoria, Florence, where they flank the steps to the Loggia dei Lanzi. The Palazzo Vecchio, begun in 1299, was designed by Arnolfo di Cambio (1245-1302). Florence, capital of Tuscany, is world famous for its Renaissance art and architecture. Its historical centre was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982. Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    DITALY070492.jpg
  • Detail of one of the main  doors, central patio, Bou Inania Madrasa, Fez, Morocco, pictured on February 24, 2009 in the morning. The Bou Inania Madrasa was founded as a boarding school and mosque in AD 1351-56 by Abu Inan Faris, also the founder of the Bou Inania Madrasa in Meknes, and holds the status of Grand Mosque. A fine example of Marenid architecture with its intricate plasterwork, carved cedar and decorated tiles or zellij it is the only mosque in Fez open to non-Muslim visitors. It was renovated in the 18th and 20th centuries. Fez, Morocco's second largest city, and one of the four imperial cities, was founded in 789 by Idris I on the banks of the River Fez. The oldest university in the world is here and the city is still the Moroccan cultural and spiritual centre. Fez has three sectors: the oldest part, the walled city of Fes-el-Bali, houses Morocco's largest medina and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site;  Fes-el-Jedid was founded in 1244 as a new capital by the Merenid dynasty, and contains the Mellah, or Jewish quarter; Ville Nouvelle was built by the French who took over most of Morocco in 1912 and transferred the capital to Rabat. Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LCMOROCCO_FEB09_MC0059.jpg
  • General view of the walls of Bou Jeloud Square, 14th century, Fes-el-Bali, Fez, Morocco, pictured on February 25, 2009 in the morning. Fez, Morocco's second largest city, and one of the four imperial cities, was founded in 789 by Idris I on the banks of the River Fez. The oldest university in the world is here and the city is still the Moroccan cultural and spiritual centre. Fez has three sectors: the oldest part, the walled city of Fes-el-Bali, houses Morocco's largest medina and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site;  Fes-el-Jedid was founded in 1244 as a new capital by the Merenid dynasty, and contains the Mellah, or Jewish quarter; Ville Nouvelle was built by the French who took over most of Morocco in 1912 and transferred the capital to Rabat. Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LCMOROCCO_FEB09_MC0076.jpg
  • Low angle view of Bab el-Mahrouk, 1214, the gate to the Medina, Fez, Morocco, pictured on February 25, 2009 in the morning. In front of the ancient gate, Built by the Almohads during the reign of Mohammad El-Nasser, it is now surrounded by market stalls. Fez, Morocco's second largest city, and one of the four imperial cities, was founded in 789 by Idris I on the banks of the River Fez. The oldest university in the world is here and the city is still the Moroccan cultural and spiritual centre. Fez has three sectors: the oldest part, the walled city of Fes-el-Bali, houses Morocco's largest medina and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site;  Fes-el-Jedid was founded in 1244 as a new capital by the Merenid dynasty, and contains the Mellah, or Jewish quarter; Ville Nouvelle was built by the French who took over most of Morocco in 1912 and transferred the capital to Rabat. Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LCMOROCCO_FEB09_MC0079.jpg
  • Detail of carved wooden screen around central courtyard, Sahrij Medersa, (Medersa des Andalous), 1321, Fez, Medersa Sahrij, Fez, Morocco, pictured on February 23, 2009 in the morning.  The Sahrij Medersa takes its name from the pool in its courtyard, (sahrij means basin). Green and white minarets crown the theological school founded by Merinid sultan Abou al-Hassan and attached to the Al-Andalous mosque.  It is decorated with ornate  dark cedar panels (mashrabiya), decorated tiles (zellij), marble pavings and intricate plasterwork. Fez, Morocco's second largest city, and one of the four imperial cities, was founded in 789 by Idris I on the banks of the River Fez. The oldest university in the world is here and the city is still the Moroccan cultural and spiritual centre. Fez has three sectors: the oldest part, the walled city of Fes-el-Bali, houses Morocco's largest medina and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site;  Fes-el-Jedid was founded in 1244 as a new capital by the Merenid dynasty, and contains the Mellah, or Jewish quarter; Ville Nouvelle was built by the French who took over most of Morocco in 1912 and transferred the capital to Rabat. Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LCMOROCCO_FEB09_MC0040.jpg
  • Detail of decorated tiles and wooden carving, Bou Inania Madrasa, Fez, Morocco, pictured on February 22, 2009 in the evening. The Bou Inania Madrasa was founded as a boarding school and mosque in AD 1351-56 by Abu Inan Faris, also the founder of the Bou Inania Madrasa in Meknes, and holds the status of Grand Mosque. A fine example of Marenid architecture with its intricate plasterwork, carved cedar and decorated tiles or zellij it is the only mosque in Fez open to non-Muslim visitors. It was renovated in the 18th and 20th centuries. Fez, Morocco's second largest city, and one of the four imperial cities, was founded in 789 by Idris I on the banks of the River Fez. The oldest university in the world is here and the city is still the Moroccan cultural and spiritual centre. Fez has three sectors: the oldest part, the walled city of Fes-el-Bali, houses Morocco's largest medina and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site;  Fes-el-Jedid was founded in 1244 as a new capital by the Merenid dynasty, and contains the Mellah, or Jewish quarter; Ville Nouvelle was built by the French who took over most of Morocco in 1912 and transferred the capital to Rabat. Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LCMOROCCO_FEB09_MC0030.jpg
  • Detail of wood carving, central patio, Sahrij Medersa (Medersa des Andalous), 1321, Morocco, pictured on February 21, 2009 in the morning. The Sahrij Medersa takes its name from the pool in its courtyard, (sahrij means basin). Green and white minarets crown the theological school founded by Merinid sultan Abou al-Hassan and attached to the Al-Andalous mosque.  It is decorated with ornate  dark cedar panels (mashrabiya), decorated tiles (zellij), marble pavings and intricate plasterwork. Fez, Morocco's second largest city, and one of the four imperial cities, was founded in 789 by Idris I on the banks of the River Fez. The oldest university in the world is here and the city is still the Moroccan cultural and spiritual centre. Fez has three sectors: the oldest part, the walled city of Fes-el-Bali, houses Morocco's largest medina and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site;  Fes-el-Jedid was founded in 1244 as a new capital by the Merenid dynasty, and contains the Mellah, or Jewish quarter; Ville Nouvelle was built by the French who took over most of Morocco in 1912 and transferred the capital to Rabat. Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LCMOROCCO_FEB09_MC0005.jpg
  • General view of Bab el-Mahrouk gate, 12th century, Fez, Morocco, pictured on February 25, 2009 in the morning.  Bab el-Mahrouk is the main gateway between the old medina and newer suburbs. Its restored stonework is seen against the mountains with market stalls in the foreground. Fez, Morocco's second largest city, and one of the four imperial cities, was founded in 789 by Idris I on the banks of the River Fez. The oldest university in the world is here and the city is still the Moroccan cultural and spiritual centre. Fez has three sectors: the oldest part, the walled city of Fes-el-Bali, houses Morocco's largest medina and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site;  Fes-el-Jedid was founded in 1244 as a new capital by the Merenid dynasty, and contains the Mellah, or Jewish quarter; Ville Nouvelle was built by the French who took over most of Morocco in 1912 and transferred the capital to Rabat. Picture by Manuel Cohen.
    LCMOROCCO_FEB09_MC0077.jpg
  • Panoramic View of the North West City Walls, 11th-14th century, Avila, Spain, with Cathedral, 11th-15th century, in the distance. Avila has superbly preserved walls built as fortifications against the Moors, an ancient cathedral, Romanesque churches, and is a pilgrimage destination due to its association with Carmelite nun St Teresa (1515-82), canonized 1622. The Old Town has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Photograph by Manuel Cohen.
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  • Northern City Walls, 11th-14th century, Avila, Spain. The Old Town has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Photograph by Manuel Cohen.
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  • City Walls, 11th-14th century, Avila, Spain. Avila has superbly preserved walls built as fortifications against the Moors, an ancient cathedral, Romanesque churches, and is a pilgrimage destination due to its association with Carmelite nun St Teresa (1515-82), canonized 1622. The Old Town has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Photograph by Manuel Cohen.
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  • Panoramic View of the North West City Walls, 11th-14th century, Avila, Spain, with Cathedral, 11th-15th century, in the distance. Avila has superbly preserved walls built as fortifications against the Moors, an ancient cathedral, Romanesque churches, and is a pilgrimage destination due to its association with Carmelite nun St Teresa (1515-82), canonized 1622. The Old Town has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Photograph by Manuel Cohen.
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  • Fortified tower, City Wall, 11th-14th centuries, Avila, Castile and Leon, Spain. The 2.5km wall, with 88 semi-circular towers and nine gates, is one of the most complete city walls in Spain. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • City Walls, 11th-14th century, Avila, Spain, with Cathedral, 11th-15th century, in the distance (looking West). Avila has superbly preserved walls built as fortifications against the Moors, an ancient cathedral, Romanesque churches, and is a pilgrimage destination due to its association with Carmelite nun St Teresa (1515-82), canonized 1622. The Old Town has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Photograph by Manuel Cohen.
    LCSPAIN11_MC342.jpg
  • Panoramic View of the North West City Walls, 11th-14th century, Avila, Spain, with Cathedral, 11th-15th century, in the distance. Avila has superbly preserved walls built as fortifications against the Moors, an ancient cathedral, Romanesque churches, and is a pilgrimage destination due to its association with Carmelite nun St Teresa (1515-82), canonized 1622. The Old Town has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Photograph by Manuel Cohen.
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  • Castillo de Xativa, or Xativa castle, a double fortress which has been built on and added to throughout Roman, Carthaginian, Andalusian, Iberian, Gothic and Islamic periods, at Xativa, Valencia, Spain. In the foreground is the Plaza de Armas, the main central courtyard, with a neo-Gothic 20th century building, looking up to the Castell Menor in the distance. The Castell Menor is the oldest part of the castle, dating from Iberian and Roman times, and the Castell Major is medieval and Islamic. The castle is situated on the Via Augusta, the Roman road leading from Rome to Cadiz. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • Castelgrande at night, a large defensive medieval castle in the Old Town of Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. A fortification has been in place here since the 1st century BC, although the current buildings date from the 12th and 15th centuries. The 2 towers are Torre Nera (28m) and Torre Bianca (27m). The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Museo Castelgrande. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • Torre de los Leones, built 1662 and now the main entrance, and  ramparts of the Alcazar de los Reyes Cristianos or Palace of the Catholic Kings, rebuilt during the Umayyad Caliphate in the 10th century and used as a royal fortress by the Moors and the Christians, as a base for the Spanish Inquisition, and as a prison, in Cordoba, Andalusia, Southern Spain. The alcazar is a national monument of Spain, and the historic centre of Cordoba is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • The Torre de Belem or Belem Tower, built in the 16th century by Francisco de Arruda under King John II as part of a defence system at the mouth of the river Tagus and a ceremonial gateway to the city, Santa Maria de Belem, Lisbon, Portugal. The limestone tower is built in Late Gothic Manueline style, and consists of a bastion terrace (right) a 4 storey tower and small access bridge (left). It is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its important role during the Portuguese Age of Discoveries. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • The Comares Tower, built in the 14th century under Muhammad V, the tallest tower in the Alhambra and housing the Hall of the Ambassadors, Nasrid Palaces and the Palace of Charles V in the background, built by Pedro Machuca in the 16th century, Alhambra Palace, Granada, Andalusia, Southern Spain. Behind are the mountains of the Sierra Nevada. The Alhambra was begun in the 11th century as a castle, and in the 13th and 14th centuries served as the royal palace of the Nasrid sultans. The huge complex contains the Alcazaba, Nasrid palaces, gardens and Generalife. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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  • Castelgrande on Castelgrande Hill, a large defensive medieval castle in the Old Town of Bellinzona, Ticino, Switzerland. A fortification has been in place here since the 1st century BC, although the current buildings date from the 12th and 15th centuries. The 2 towers are Torre Nera (28m) and Torre Bianca (27m). The castle is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and now houses the Museo Castelgrande. Picture by Manuel Cohen
    DRN_LC18_Bellinzona_MC040.jpg
  • Entrance to Stirling Castle, with current buildings dating to 15th and 16th centuries, on Castle Hill, in Stirling, Scotland. The castle was an important royal palace for centuries and has seen many coronations and sieges. The castle is listed as a scheduled ancient monument and is run by Historic Environment Scotland. Picture by Manuel Cohen
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